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JUND FILASTIN - UMAYYAD CALIPHATE
(638-1099)
In 635 an Arab Caliph Muawiyah I conquered the entire Levant. In 661 he was crowned and became the first ruler of the Damascus Based Umayyad dynasty. The Arabs who originally came from Arabia had no name for this region and did not choose the original name Judea but they adopted the Greco-Roman name Palastina, that they pronounced “Falastin”.
Dome of the Rock (705 AD) on Temple mount Jerusalem
7-8 TH CENTURY PEACE & COEXISTENCE
The Muslim conquest in the 7th century is clearly visible in the remnants of two fascinating old mosques that recently were found in Rahat, in the desert, and in Tiberias in the North. They belong to the oldest mosques in the world.
The new rulers of this region did not introduce direct persecution of different religious groups. However, Muslim apostasy was curbed by threat of death, and many nominal Christians began to gradually defect to Islam to avoid discrimination and heavy taxation. This type of oppression eventually stopped the growth of other religious communities. Important to mention is that many ancient synagogues in the Golan area were still in use in the 7th and 8th century (until the great earthquake of 749 AD). The beautiful synagogues of Katzrin and Hammat Gader are a testimony from this period. Not only in the Galilee houses of worship were in use. In Jerusalem the Karaite synagogue, the Rav Getz synagogue near the Western Wall and the synagogue of Susya in the south were in use during the early Arab period. So there also seems to be periods of relative peaceful coexistence at least in parts of Israel during the Umayyad period. See also the this link related to Umayyad coins found in Israel.
A Greek inscription crediting Mu'awiya for restoring Roman bathhouses near Tiberias in 663 AD. Photo: public domain
Coexistence was not only between Jews and Arabs. The recent finding of inscription on the 7th century shipwreck of Ma'agan Michael had a mixed crew of both Muslim and Christian sailors. Archaeologist Deborah Cvikel stated “One of the biggest takeaways from this shipwreck is that, in the past as in the present, normal people are more connected and united in working together than the history books would have you believe, based on geopolitical narratives of wars and battles,”
Katzrin synagogue, great arial photo by Avram Graicer
With the Muslim conquest the Byzantine ban on Jews living in Jerusalem came to an end, Jund Filastin gradually came to be dominated politically and socially by Muslims although the dominant religion of the country down to the Crusades may still have been Christian. A new city Ramlah, was build as the capital of Jund filastin. From 691 AD and later the Umayyad dynasty constructed mosques and shrines. The beautiful Dome of the Rock shrine on the Temple Mount and the Al Aqsa Mosque are the most famous but many more ancient examples can be found in Mosques & Shrines in this website. The building of the two famous Islamic sites did create ongoing tensions between Judaism and Islam. After all Temple Mount with the foundation stone (where according to tradition Abraham tried to sacrifice his son Isaac) is the most holy place in Judaism.
Beautiful decoration of the Umayyad palace of Minya. Photo: Khalid Mahmood
Umayyad World Empire in 750 AD. Photo: Ergovius
ABBASID CALIPHATE & PROSECUTION
The Ummayyad empire became an enormous empire that colonised the Middle East, North Africa and parts of Asia. But in 750, Arab discrimination against Non-Arab Muslims led to a revolution and the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid caliphs who build Baghdad as their new capital. During the 8th century, the Caliph Umar II tried to repress all non Muslims and issued a law requiring Jews and Christians to wear identifying clothing: Jews were required to wear yellow stars round their neck and on their hats. Christians had to wear Blue. These clothing regulations were not always enforced, but did arise during repressive periods. Heavier taxes where imposed on all non Muslims by all Islamic rulers and a failure to pay could result in imprisonment or worse. Also travel bans where imposed on non-Muslims unless they payed more taxes. There were bans on the construction of new churches or synagogues and the repair of existing places of worship was not allowed. (See also the 'Pact of Umar'). A sad testimony to this harsh oppression is the fact that from the Abbasid period nearly all synagogues were out of use or destroyed. During the 9th century however the restriction and oppression seems to have been eased.
Fascinating is the story of Monks from Jerusalem who in 800 AD visited the coronation of Charlemagne The Great in Aken. Harun Al-Rashid (786-809), the Ayyubid caliph of Baghdad even sent presents and envoys to Charlemagne. The Emperor praised Al Rashid as the most honourable and respectable king on earth. Although this story mentioned in the Royal Frankish Annals might be somewhat romanticised, Charlemagne had send envoys with gifts that both visited the Jerusalem Patriarchate and who visited Al-Rashid in Bagdad. While stories of a Frankish protectorate also seems to exaggerated (see article), Al Rashid seems to have granted permission to Charlemagne to build or restore some buildings next to the church of Holy Sepulchre and on top op mount Olives.
TALMUDIC ACADEMY IN ERETZ ISRAEL
The Land of Israel Gaonate, known as Yeshivat Eretz Israel in Hebrew, served as the primary talmudical academy and central legal authority for the Jewish community in Palestine from at least the middle of the ninth century until its dissolution in the 11th century. It competed with the Babylonian Gaonate for support from diasporic communities. Notably, Egyptian and German Jews considered the Palestinian geonim as their spiritual guides. The historical details of the Gaonate came to light through documents unearthed in the Cairo genizah in 1896.
The academy moved from Tiberias to Jerusalem in the 9th century. with the Seljuk conquest of Jerusalem the Gaonate moved to Tyre in 1071, and later to Fustat, Egypt. Although likely ceasing before Christian conquest, the Gaonate seems to have survived in Damascus. according to Benjamin of Tudela (c. 1170) the teachers of Damascus were considered as the "scholastic heads of Eretz Israel."
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During the 11th-century, daily prayers were offered at the Cave of Machpela (encyclopedia.com)
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FATIMID CALIPHATE
In the tenth to twelfth centuries (909 - 1171 AD) the area of North Africa (including present-day Algeria, Tunisia, Sicily, Egypt, and Syria) came under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty (909–1171). This dynasty was an offshoot of a Shi’i sect from the Berber population of what is now Morocco and Algeria. The Fatimid rulers descended from Fatima, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (hence Fatimid). This shi'i caliphate replaced the orthodox Sunni Abbasid caliphate. At its height, the caliphate included apart from North Africa a vast area including Sicily, Syria, the Levant and the Hijaz. After the Fatimids conquered Tunisia they established the new city of "al-Mahdiyya". Ultimately one of the most powerful Fatimid caliphs Al-Muʿizz (born c. 930—died 975) made the newly founded Al-Qahirah or Cairo, his capital. With Cairo as its political, cultural, and religious centre a new and "indigenous Arabic" culture developed. The caliphate allowed a degree of religious tolerance both towards the non-Islamic 'People of the book' (Jews and Christians) and towards non-Shia sects of Islam.
Jews and Christians had the Dhimmi status meaning they were tolerated and somewhat protected as long as they agreed the live as a second class citizens, not to offend Muslims, to pay their Jizya-tax and wore their distinctive Jewish or Christian clothes. Also there were periods of severe oppression. During the reign of Al-Hakim (996- 1021 AD) the Jews of Cairo praised him for saving them from violence and harsch taxation but sadly the same ruler ordered around 1010 the destruction of all the synagogues and churches. The Church of the holy Sepulchre and many synagogues of Jerusalem were destroyed. Al-Hakim's army murdered, raped and plundered Cairo and Damascus. However, ten years later the ruler relented and paid for the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
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Chapel of St.Helena, Church of the Holy sepulchre, photo by Someone 10x
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Fatimid period Jewelry found in Caesarea, Photo by Edmund Gall
The documents found in the Cairo Genizah proved that during the Fatimid period, from the tenth to the twelfth century, Jews were allowed far more freedom and were treated much more tolerantly, than previously assumed. The Fatimid Caliphate allowed even the financial support for the ancient Academy of Jerusalem and the self-governance by the Jewish community and allowed the Jewish community to support the pilgrims to the holy sites. Also in the 10th century there were strong connections between the diaspora communities and the land of Yisrael. The fascinating Scroll or Megillat of Ahimaaz written in 1054 in Italy, recounts of the strong financial support for the Jewish community and the Yeshiva in Jerusalem. This aid was provided by Paltiel, astrologer, physician, and statesman at the court of the Fatimid caliph al-Muʿizz. He managed to impress the Caliph after which the Caliph appointed Paltiel as his chief aide.
This triving Jewish live during the Fatimid period was also reported by Al-Maqdisi, the famous 10th century historian from Jerusalem. who wrote a 'Description of the Muslim Empire'. He stated that in Palestine "everywhere the Christians and Jews have the upper hand and the mosque is void of congregation". Ben Outhwaite, the head of genizah research at Cambridge stated that Jewish merchants partnered with Christians and Muslims; they even ran shops and silk weaveries together. Also Jewish merchants sailed from Egypt or Yemen to India and sometimes married to Indian women and settled there. Some divorced or returned.
Christian pilgrimage was common during this period and a hospice was build in Jerusalem by the Knights Hospitaller to aid Christian Pilgrims to the holy land. (During the Crusades this Order took a military role in defending the pilgrimage and later it took the lead in Crusaders military campaigns, see link).
Another example of religious tolerance was the start of the Druze religion, In 1017 the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah claimed a divine status and the newly formed Druze religion gave him the status of a messiah. The Druze community would become a small but clearly visible community both Syria and in the mountain villages in the North of Israel. (For more information on the Druze go to the next chapter.)
Druze Tomb, Kfar Yasif photo by Jobas
Karaite synagogue Jerusalem, photos Tamar Hayardeni
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KARAITE JEWS & THE LAND OF ISRAEL
According to Rabbinical legend, Karaism traces back to Rabbi Anan Ben David, who lived in Iraq over 1200 years ago. The tale suggests that Anan, in disagreement with his Rabbi and rejecting the Oral Law, established Karaism. The same story tells that both Yeshua (Jesus) and Muhammad likewise formed new religious movements after they refusing to accept the authority of the Rabbis.
During its formative period from the 9th to the 11th century, the 'Mourners of Zion' emerged as a prominent faction within Karaism (see link). They to contested the Rabbinic Oral Law, considering it of human origin rather than divine, advocating a return solely to the Hebrew Bible. They believed that neglecting the Bible led to neglecting the Land of Israel. Consequently, they developed a Messianic doctrine urging Jews to embrace the Bible and migrate to Israel to hasten redemption. The leadership of the Karaite Mourners exemplified their beliefs by relocating from Babylonia and Persia to Jerusalem, establishing a community known as Shoshanim (lilies). This community became pivotal in Karaite history, leaving behind a wealth of literature primarily in Judaeo-Arabic. The Karaites established their own quarter in Jerusalem and Rabbi Anan Ben David build the Karaite synagogue in Jerusalem. this was one of the few exceptions to the disappearance of synagogues after the 7th century and it remained in use until 1948. Apart from Jerusalem there were also Karaite communities in Ramla and Ashkelon. However these Karaite synagogues were sadly destroyed during the Seljuk and Crusader conquests in the 11th century. One of the few things that survived is a letter from Sadoq Ha-Levi b. Levi, who was head of the Court of the Yeshiva of Ramla. (see link)
JEWISH LIFE IN JERUSALEM, TIBERIAS, THE GALILEE AND ASHKELON
During these centuries abundant evidence can be found of pilgrimages to Jerusalem and in general Pilgrimage was an important way to preserve the ties between the Diaspora Jews and the Jews in Israel. Joshua Prawer and Haggai Ben Shammai described in 'The History of Jerusalem' (1996) that many Italian Jews made pilgrimage to the Temple mount on Jewish festivals. Jews from Babylon, Syria and North Africa visited Jerusalem and celebrated festivals like Sukkot in times when travel was safe enough. Jewish life continuing also around lake Galilee, during Abassid and Fatimid rule. Between the 7th and 11th centuries, Jewish scribes, called Masoretes who were located in Galilee and Jerusalem, established the Masoretic Text, the final text of the Hebrew Bible. Famous artefacts that shows this continuous development of Judaism in the land of Israel are the Aleppo Codex and Sefer Dikdukei ha-Te'amim (Grammar or Analysis of the Accents, written by Mozes Ben Asher). Both were written in Tiberias in the first half of the 10th century.
Ben Asher Codex, 1000 AD, Tiberias. Photo by Tamar Hayardeni
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Aleppo Codex - Tiberias - photo OHAYON AVI
Other examples of Jewish villages in the North/Galilee are Baram, Gush Halav/Jish, Dalton/Dallata and Safed. In the 10th century AD, the Arab geographer Al-Muqaddasi described many places in the Ottoman Empire and in his chapter dealing with the province of Syria he also described the village of Jish. This village also named Gush Halav holds the rock-cut tombs of the famous sages Shmaya and Abtalion and remnants of two Roman period synagogues. Al-Muqaddasi described the place as a Jewish village and this was confirmed by documents in the Cairo Geniza. From the 11th century a Jewish Marriage contracts or Ketubbah bear testimony of the Jewish presence in Safed, Acre, Ramla and Tiberias. Part of these ancient documents were also found in the Cairo Genizah. This valuable collection also includes documents that confirm the existence of Jewish communities in Jerusalem, the Galilee, Hebron, Ashkelon and Gaza.
CHRISTIAN AND MUSLIM PILGRIMAGE & COEXISTENCE
During the Arab occupation pilgrimage was still practised by Jews, Christians and also Muslim pilgrims as Hunt Janin described in her fascinating book 'Four Paths to Jerusalem'. The Arabs were quite tolerant to Christian and Jewish pilgrims and they benefited from the sales and trade that flourished with the coming of pilgrims. Pilgrimage for Christians during the Middle Ages became a common thing since Christians of that time believed that by going on a pilgrimage they might be forgiven their sins. Pilgrimage was considered an ultimate spiritual act and the most popular destinations for European Christians were Rome, Santiago de Compostela in Spain and the Holy Land (notably Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth). The pilgrimage to the Holy Land was considered to be the most dangerous route. Christian pilgrimage grew strongly during the post-byzantine period and the 10th century became a high point of Christian pilgrimage. The passage by sea but also the travel by land through Hungary became much safer. This spiritual revival was also caused by the great demographic and economic expansion in Europe. Churches were being build, pilgrimage grew and the ties between Christians and the holy land became far stronger.
New was the start of Muslim pilgrimage. At first it started when Jerusalem became a sacred spot while travelling to Mecca. Examples are the travel of the Persian Ibn al-Faqih (903 AD) who was impressed by the city just like the already mentioned Arab geographer Al-Mugaddesi (985 AD). But also there are the accounts of Muslim women that travelled to Mecca and visited Jerusalem. For example Fatima de Nishapur (see link) or Rabi'a al-Adawiyah (717-801) from Basra who became a Muslim saint and had great influence on the development of Muslim faith.
10th century Islamic art: Beautiful 'Tree of Life' mosaic - Hisham's Palace Photo: Tamar Hayardeni
SELJUK CONQUEST & RISING DANGERS FOR PILGRIMS
In the 11th century the Seljuk empire was growing and during the 11th until the 13th century the Middle East and Anatolia was ruled by the Seljuks. The Seljuk sultan Alp-Arslan (meaning “Heroic Lion” in Turkish) defeated the Byzantines under the emperor Romanus IV Diogenes at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 AD. At the same time the Seljuk Turks took over control of Jerusalem and when they did pilgrimages to Jerusalem became more challenging and dangerous. There are numerous accounts of the cruelties and violence of the Turks toward the Christians and also before the conquest of the holy land by the Seljuks. The information that the Seljuk Turks massacred a group of 12,000 German pilgrims on Good Friday in 1065, led by bishop Günther of Bamberg, catalysed the call for the First Crusade and in 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II preached an armed pilgrimage to recover the lost Christian territory. The were however older tensions in the growing battle between Muslim and Christian rulers which resulted in the crusades as a religious driven answer to this power struggle. The first papal call for a crusade occurred already in 846 A.D., when an Arab expedition from Sicily sailed up the Tiber and sacked St. Peter’s in Rome. A synod in France issued an appeal to Christian sovereigns to rally against “the enemies of Christ,” and the Pope, Leo IV, offered a heavenly reward to those who died fighting the Muslims.
The beautiful Knights Hall in Acre.
KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM
The Kingdom of Jerusalem was mainly established to keep control of the holy places and the pilgrimage routes from Europe to Israel and there were more 'Crusader kingdoms' to the north of Israel. From the declining Byzantine empire a string of kingdoms reached all the way to the holy land. The Kingdom of Jerusalem was established after the First Crusade by Godfried van Bouillon in 1099. Godfried (Godfrey) van Bouillon who played a key role during the Siege of Jerusalem, became the leader when Raymond IV of Toulouse declined the offer to become king of Jerusalem. Godfried refused the title of king as he believed that he ought not wear "a crown of gold" where Jesus Christ had worn "a crown of thorns". But after one year he died and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who was crowned the first king of Jerusalem.
Reynald the Chatillon,Patriarch of Antioch. (William of Tyre's Historia and Continuation, 13C manuscript from Acre. Bibliotheque Nationale Française),
1099 - 1291 AD
The victory of the crusaders ended with the catastrophic brutal killing of nearly all inhabitants. Jewish and Muslim live ended in Jerusalem. Ashkenazi Jews still recite a prayer in memory of the death and destruction caused by the Crusades ( Av-Ha-Rahamim). An insightful and unparalleled account of this tragedy and the land of israel in the mid-12th century is the famous Book of Travels written by the Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela. In the memory of the Jews, the Crusades became the symbol of the opposition between Christianity and Judaism. These tension aroused by the persecutions was far more severe than that which had existed since the origins of Christianity. Many Christians during the Middle ages saw the Jews as the enemies of their faith and in this climate of severe antisemitism became widespread and leading to centuries of genocidal violence throughout Europe and the Holy land. During the era of crusades and the violence that happened in this period, the Jewish population in Israel became far smaller.
Statue of Judah Halevi in Caesarea.
Photo by Raananms
The picture of brutal violence and wars was more a result of the conquest than of the reality after this deadly turmoil. Jewish Pilgrimage to the holy land restarted quickly after the conquest of the crusaders and the accounts of Judah Halevi and Benjamin of Tudela are fascinating reminders of this revival.
12th century Church of Assumption venerated by Christians as the Tomb of the Virgin Mary (Photo by Juandev, wikimedia C)
JEWS IN ASHKELON DURING THE CRUSADES
In the first period of Crusader rule the coastal fortress city of Ashkelon was yet unconquered. The city became a sanctuary for many Jews and those who escaped the crusader conquest of Jerusalem. A letter found in the Cairo Genizah give a testimony to the way many Jews in Ashkelon aided the Jews in Jerusalem by paying large ransoms to the crusaders to free the surviving Jews. Even in these difficult times, life continued, which is visible in a marriage contract of 1100 from Ashkelon. Many members of the Jewish community in the Holy land were in constant touch with Jewish communities in the diaspora. For example in 1110, a letter was sent to the head of the "Gaon Jacob Yeshivah," which was exiled from the country.
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The siege of Ascalon by King Baldwin III (Les Passages d'outremer 1462 Sebastien Mamerot).
After a long siege the city was captured from the Fatimid Caliphate in 1153 by King Baldwin III. The citizens were allowed to leave in peace and many fled to Egypt. However even after the Crusader conquest, part of the Jewish population remained in Ashkelon. Benjamin of Tudela described Ashkelon as "a large and beautiful town, which contains two hundred Jews, and apart from them, several dozen Karaites and about three hundred Samaritans." The crusaders had already began to realise that to consolidate their power and preserve the economy they needed the support of the local populations. As a result non-Christian religions were soon tolerated although with some restrictions and with an inferior legal status than Catholic Christians. Jews and Muslims could visit Jerusalem but not reside there. While in contemporary Europe pogroms happened against the Jews tolerance was growing in the holy land.
Most of the first Crusaders came from France and as a consequence French was the official language of the kingdom but it was only spoken by the crusaders themselves. In general the local groups of Eastern Christians, Muslims and Jews did not seems to integrate with the Catholic ruling elite. Contact was often limited to legal, economic, and administrative interactions except for the adoption by the Franks of local clothes, cuisine, and hygiene practices that were better adjusted to the climate of the Middle East. And despite the many wars between the Christians and Muslims in the region trade continued.
"the majority of the cities of the kingdom remained cosmopolitan as trade thrived regardless of politics or race" (see link).
From the start these kingdoms were controlled by noblemen from Europe but in time the kingdoms became more oriental when the rulers were born in these kingdoms, were they were influenced mostly by the region were they lived and had only weak ties to rulers and politics in Europe. The most important Christians in the Crusader states were Greek (Melkite) and Armenians and most of the communities were already present in Israel for centuries. In rural area's the Muslim and Jewish (Samaritans for example) population managed to survive. During the Crusades migration happened, often related to pilgrimage from both Jews and Christians.
Ruins of a Carmelite monastery in Wadi Siah. Photo by Bukvoed (Wikimedia commons).
START OF THE CARMELITE ORDER
The Carmelites are a religious group (within the Catholic Church) that started at the end of the 12th century by a group of Latin hermits. They settled on the slopes of Mt. Carmel near Elijah's cave in their wish to imitate Prophet Elijah through a solitary way of life. They obtained official recognition between 1206 and 1214 and around 1226, they built a small church. The excavations performed in the fifties and sixties of the last century by the Franciscan archaeologist Bellarmino Bagatti, brought to light the primitive grotto's and the remains of successive buildings, with the big chapel standing out among them. Around 1240, the order expanded and the first convents were founded in Europe. In 1291, when the crusaders where defeated by the Mamluks, the Carmelites were forced to abandon the Holy Land. They dreamed of a return but this only happened in 1631.
IMPOSING BUILDINGS & POLITICAL INTRIGUES
The history of the Kingdom of Jerusalem has many different aspects. The brutal wars are often remembered in the Middle East although most opponents of the crusaders were often just as cruel and using no less violence in the battles for power. Clearly visible are also the numerous imposing and well preserved buildings constructed in the two hundred years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Some churches are well preserved and used until today and famous is the giant fortress of Acre build to withstand the Arab armies. Stability was not a characteristic of the Crusaders kingdom, the only kingdom since the Hasmoneans in this land. The kings and queens were busy facing threats from the surrounding hostile Arab armies but also in the complicated political intrigues and internal struggles for power. Fascinating are the stories of King Baldwin IV who struggled with leprosy but was a highly skilled and respected leader even during his last years when he was very ill and dying. But also the stories of the powerful Queens of Jerusalem are well described by Katherine Pangonis in her book; Queens of Jerusalem' (to read more see below this page).
Largest crusader castle in Israel: Nimrod Castle. Photo by: עמוס גל /Amos Gal
END OF THE CRUSADERS ERA
Around 1180, Crusader Raynald of Chatillon caused increasing conflict with the Ayyubid Sultan Salah-ad-Din (Saladin). The Crusaders were defeated in the Battle of Hattin in 1187 near the sea of Galilee. Salah-al-Din was able to take Jerusalem and conquered most of the former Kingdom of Jerusalem. While surely a conqueror waging wars for expansion of the Ayyubid Empire, Salah-al-Din was famous for his good treatment of his enemies. When he conquered Jerusalem, the rich could buy their freedom but the poor where sold into slavery. In those times this was seen as relative tolerant compared to the massacre of all people in the conquered city.
Salad ad-Din's court physician was the famous Rabbi Maimonides, a refugee from persecution of Almohads (Muslims) in Cordoba (Spain). Maimonides possessed extensive knowledge of Greek and Arab medicine. His religious writings are still studied by Orthodox Jews and Maimonides was buried in Tiberias. In Tyre the remaining Crusaders stayed and in 1191 they reclaimed Acre.
When Salah ad-Din defeated the crusaders he destroyed the walls and port of Ashkelon to prevent possible attempts by crusaders to reclaim this city. The Jews and Christians of Ashkelon were forced out of the city but Jews were allowed to move to Jerusalem and the Jewish Ashkelon community endured. In 1214 the Jews were supported by the Egyptian Jews who send gold to the rabbi's and the Yemenite Synagogue in Jerusalem (see link).
Salah Ad Din's army (13th century painting)
Horns of Hattin - near lake Galilee. Photo: AVRAMGR
The Christian world's response to the loss of Jerusalem came in the Third Crusade of 1190. After lengthy battles and negotiations, Richard the Lionheart and Salah-ad-Din concluded the treaty of Jaffa in 1192. Christians were granted free passage to make pilgrimages to the holy sites, while Jerusalem remained under Muslim rule. In 1229, Jerusalem peacefully reverted into Christian control as part of a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid sultan al-Kamil. Only fifteen years later in 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Kwarezmian Tatars who massacred all of the city's Christian population, drove out the Jews and razed the city. The Khwarezmians were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247 and Israel became a conflict zone between the Mongol armies and the Mamluks. These conflicts impoverished the region and the population was decimated.
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Jewish Encyclopedia picture (1901-1906) of the Bodleian Bowl, a medieval English Jewish artifact possibly used by rabbi, Yechiel of Paris to collect funds for the Academy in Acre. Wikimedia commons.
THE JEWS IN ACRE & THE GREAT ACADEMY OF PARIS
The Jewish community in Acre experienced a revival and a true golden age in the 13th century. The Great Academy of Paris (Midrash HaGadol d'Paris), a Talmudic academy was established by Rabbi Jehiel of Paris. In 1258, Rabbi Jehiel and his students immigrated to the Kingdom of Jerusalem from Northern France, settling in Acre. There, he founded the Great Academy of Paris, which gained immense renown. The academy's authority was so esteemed that Rabbi Shlomo ben Adret noted in 1280 that people turned to the Sages of Acre for guidance. Acre became a center of religious authority for Middle Eastern Jews, with its rabbinical court's rulings accepted by communities in Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. The academy's scholars played a vital role in maintaining communication between the Jewish diaspora and Palestinian Jewry..During the late crusader period in Acre, not only Jews who were permitted to reside there. According to Ibn Jubayr, an Andalusian geographer, there was a Muslim community in the city as of 1185, who continued their worship in a small mosque. Also Solomon Petit, a prominent 13th-century French Tosafist, settled in Acre and gathered a following of mystics. He led a movement opposing the philosophical writings of Maimonides, which almost resulted in his excommunication by the Exilarch of Damascus, Yishai ben Chezkiah. However, Petit chose to ignore the threats and instead traveled back to Europe, to secure endorsements from German rabbis who held similar perspectives to his own. Rabbi Nachmanides travelled in 1267 from Spain to Acre and continued to Jerusalem where he re-establishment the Jewish community after the destruction by the Crusaders in 1099.
The last small part of Crusader kingdom in the Holy Land began to collapse in the later part of the 13th century. The fall of Jaffa and Antioch in 1268 to the Muslims forced Louis IX to undertake the Eighth Crusade (1270), which was cut short by his death in Tunisia. The Ninth Crusade (1271–72), was led by Prince Edward, who landed at Acre but retired after concluding a truce. In 1289, Tripoli fell to the Muslims and in 1291 the Egyptian Mamluks (Sultan Qutuz) defeated both the Mongols and the last Crusader state. Capturing Acre was extremely crucial from a geopolitical and strategical point of view for the Mamluks, as Western European forces had used the site for a very long time as a landing point for European soldiers, knights, and horses, as well as an international commercial spot for the export of sugar, spices, glass, and textiles back to Europe.
Crusader build St.Anne's Church - Jerusalem
FRANCISCANS & HOLY SITES
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During the period of the Crusaders St. Francis of Assisi travelled through part of the Holy Land in 1219 and 1220, showing his devotion and veneration of the holy sites. Jerusalem was already conquered by Salah A Din but the protection of these holy sites was important to St Francis. The presence of the Franciscans proved to be a marked contrast to the actions of the brutal Crusaders. However for the Jews the devastation and trauma caused by the crusades were so deeply felt that all Christians were seen as enemies.
The peaceful way how Francis approached Sultan, al-Kamil, a nephew of Salah Ad Din (during the 5th crusade) resulted in permission to visit the holy places in Israel. And certainly it was no coincidence that after the Crusades, during the 13th century, the Mamluk Muslim rulers allowed the Franciscans custody of the Holy Sepulcher . The 'Custody of the Holy land' was recognised by the Holy See in 1342. Ever since the Franciscans lived near the holy sites in Israel up to this day. However conflict and wars made it hard to live in the Holy land. And for many centuries the building or even restoration of churches was prohibited.
Prayer of St. Francis in Hebrew, Capuchin monastery (1932) in Talbieh, Jerusalem. Photo: Korenn
Quote St.Francis of Assisi: "If you have men who exclude any of God's creatures from the shelter of compassion and pity, you will have men who will deal likewise with their fellow men.'
Bethlehem Photo: Dirk-pieter Mellema
MIGRATION & PILGRIMAGE
After the conquest of Saladin (1187) the Oriental Jews received the privilege of visiting Jerusalem and the sacred places. Many pilgrims came from places with large Jewish communities. They travelled from Damascus, Egypt and all the way from Babylonia, (see link) to visit the Holy Land. Pilgrimage and travel also preserved the ties between the Jews in Israel and the Jews elsewhere in North Africa and Europe. Furthermore the Jews quickly returned to Jerusalem and the Holy land. When Yehuda Al Harizi visited Jerusalem in 1216 he found three Jewish communities in the City, the Ascalonite Jews, the Mahrebi jew and the French Jews. The Jews from Ascalon returned directly after 1191 when the crusaders were defeated. Not much later according to Arab sources many Morrocan or 'Mahrebi' Jews migrated to the holy land. Also in 1211 a group of Rabbi's mainly from France migrated to Israel driven by strong religious motives. The group was named '300 rabbi's' and while these numbers were possibly lower, the importance of this 'Aliyah' was significant (See article).
Prophet Habakuk by an 18th century icon painter - Kizhi monastery, Karelia, north Russia.
During the 12th century the ancient grave of Habakuk, who is believed to have served at the Temple of Solomon became a pilgrimage site in the Galilee according to Rabbi Samuel Ben Samson (1210 AD). The grave of this famous biblical prophet is an important site for Jews, Christians and Muslim (who name it Sjeik Hassan) and is located at Huqoq. This ancient town is famous for its 5th century synagogue with beautiful mosaics. Recently archaeologists found that a 12th century public building was build on top of this site. Most signs seems to prove that it actually was a synagogue and perhaps the same that was described at Huqoq in a 14th century Hebrew account of a pilgrimage by Isaac HaKohen Ben Moses (writers name Ishtori Haparchi) to Eretz Ysrael.
Not only in pilgrimage the religious connection of the Jews with Israel remained strong. Just like some Jews from Yemen were buried in tombs in Israel during the Roman era, also in later times many Jews were buried in the Holy land. One of the most famous Rabbi's, Maimonides (also named the 'Rambam') wrote the Mishneh Torah or “Yad Ha-Hazakah”. It is one of the most important works of Jewish Law (Halacha) based on the Torah. Maimonides was born in Cordoba, Spain and he died in Fustat, Egypt in 1204. H was reburied in Tiberias one year later, as was confirmed by travellers as early as 1258 AD.
'The greatest level of charity is to support an impoverished fellow, by giving them a gift or loan or entering into a partnership with them or giving him a job in order to strengthen their hand so they no longer need to ask others for help...'
Maimonides 'Law of charity'
Portrait & Photo by Hila Ben Yitzchak
In 1267 AD Nahmanides from Spain emigrated to Israel mainly because of fierce prosecution of Jews in Europe. Rabbi Nahmanides also knows as Ramban is considered to be an important figure in the re-establishment of the Jewish community in Jerusalem following the destruction by the crusaders in 1099. In Jerusalem he established a synagogue that exists and is in use until the present day, This Ramban synagogue and the Jewish community that he established existed interrupted for almost 700 consecutive years (until the 1948 Arab Israeli war). Other fascinating historical sources are the 'Book of travels' from Benjamin of Tudela and the 14th century Florence Scroll that beautifully shows the pilgrimage from North Africa to Israel. Both give us important illustrations of the holy land between the 12th and the 14th century.
Ramban Synagogue, Jerusalem Photo's: Daniel Ventura
WOMEN IN THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM
Melisende Queen of Jerusalem - 1131 to 1153
Often the role of women is neglected in the history of the Crusades. However the role of women was both diverse and of great influence. Women in Europe ruled the lands when their husbands left to join the crusades. Many also joined the long journeys of the crusades. A large number of nuns are believed to have travelled to the Holy Land during the Crusades. But also some noble women actually fought in the battles and their stories are beautiful described in Queens of Jerusalem by Katherine Pangonis.
Eleanor of Aquitania, Florine of Burgundy and Queen Melisende are famous examples. Margaret of Provence was the only women who actually led a crusader battle when her husband King Louis IX, was captured and she led the negotiations for his release. She was famous for her bravery and decisiveness.
Another famous queen was Sybilla, the sister of king Baldwin IV, who suffered from leprosy and died young. She became Queen with King Guy Lusignan who was not a good leader and hated amongst the nobleman in the Kingdom. She could inherit the throne only on the condition that she would divorce Guy Lusignan. Cleverly she accepted this chance from the nobility. But as soon she was crowned she declared that she would again marry her divorced husband! Although she was the only Queen in the world that for a moment did not have a man ruling with her, she was so loyal and strongly attached to Guy that she seems to be less influential than some other queens. Perhaps out of love or religious motives she stayed loyal to Guy even afte the fall of Jerusalem.
Melisende Queen of Jerusalem needs to be mentioned. She was of mixed origin since her mother was an Armenian Princess that maried her (Catholic) Father King Baldwin II. Melisende was praised for being a very talented diplomat, who had great knowledge of Arab and Muslim philosophy and she knew the local Christian churches very well. She became the patron of the arts and her mixed origins can be seen in the Melisende Psalter (see link). Melisende encouraged massive construction in Jerusalem like the Church of Saint Anne and the Tomb of the Virgin. She also restored the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, rebuilt and developed St. James's Church and the Armenian Quarter. Not surprisingly the Armenian Church see Melisende as their own.
Another important women was Ismat ad Din Khatun, the wife of Salah Ad-Din, the Kurdisch ruler who became on the most popular Muslim Sultans in history and the most successful enemy of the crusaders. Ismat ad Din Khatun had been married to Nur Ah Din until he died. She was a courageous an determined diplomat who negotiated with King Amalric I during the siege of Banyas. Salah Ad-Din wrote letters to hear and seems to have loved her very much.
Sybilla, Queen of Jerusalem